原文 https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/ODwWr78a_nilYmkj7_dR6Q
今天我们要了解的是古希腊最聪明的头脑们是怎么思考问题，怎么把理性贯彻于生活，怎么从宗教和巫术的迷雾中建立起新的宇宙。
依然按照惯例引用约翰赫斯特《极简欧洲史》的一段原文。我们现代所认知的科学始于400年前的17世纪科学革命，而且现代科学一开始就推翻了希腊科学的中心教义，“现代科学的诞生从反驳亚里士多德开始”，但是推翻希腊科学遵循的正是希腊科学的灵感：答案应该简单、符合逻辑、能以数学表达。用理性去发现这个世界背后的道理是古希腊人留给世界最大的财产。举个很简单的例子，每天早上的阳光你觉得和中午的阳光会有不同吗？哪个更刺眼？今天的阳光和昨天的阳光有什么区别吗？是不是觉得其实每时每刻阳光都不一样，甚至你在屋里和在室外感受到的阳光都不一样，很难具体回答这个问题。但是无论什么时候的阳光，它们的传播都遵循一个同样的规律。两个极其简单的公式 真空光速 c=λγ，介质光速 v=c/n。这就是简单的力量。
柏拉图立方体从几何学中最容易看出希腊人有多聪明。几何学几乎代表了古希腊的世界观，他们认为万事万物应该是符合几何学的，都具有一种和谐的美感。几何是引导人类认识宇宙本质的途径，我们环顾世界，所有事物都是随机而杂乱无章的出现。但希腊人相信，这一切背后必然有简单、规律、有逻辑的原理支撑，就像几何学那样。几何学的运作是：从几个基本定义出发，从中延申出其他规则。它的起始是“点”，希腊人为“点”下的定义是：有定位但没有量值的东西，在这里简单解释一下“量值”，就“点”这个定义而言，就是这个“点”，没有任何数值来表达它，没有长宽高没有面积体积。数学是一种抽象的东西，就像亚里士多德解释的那样，“点”并不是实际存在的东西，而只是我们进行分析时的一个思想工具，是由我们的思想创造出来的。其次是有长度但没有宽度的“线”，再来是“直线”：两点之间最短的线。根据这三个定义，你可以建立出圆的定义：这个图形当中有个中心点，从这个固定点连接到这个图形的所有直线都是等距的。除了圆形，你还可以定义出可以无限延伸但永远不会相交的平行线，以及各式各样的三角形、正方形、长方形等等形状。在希腊人眼里几何学是个简单、优雅、逻辑的系统，非常赏心悦目，非常美。柏拉图学园的大门上就写着不懂几何者请勿入内。意思就是如果一个人对几何式的美感没有感觉，没有追求，那就不用来研究哲学。
在古希腊时期，科学和哲学很难分开，因此科学也被称为“科学哲学”（scientific philosophy）。泰勒斯预测过日食，在土地测量上颇有成就，他测量金字塔高度的故事一直为人所津津乐道。泰勒斯是如何测量金字塔高度的呢？在正午太阳照射着一个人，当这个人的影子的长度和身高一致时候，就去测量金字塔影子的长度，就能得到金字塔的高度。非常聪明的办法。毕达哥拉斯首先提出太阳系有十个成员（包括太阳），芝诺悖论蕴藏了深刻的逻辑和数学问题。毕达哥拉斯学派认为 万物皆数，这句话的意思不是世界上的所有事物都是数字构成的，他是说世界上的一切都是可以用数学公式来表达。孩子们在学校做science projects，一般过程是先确定想做什么，提出一个hypothesis，然后做实验去求证这个hypothesis是true还是false，古希腊人不是这样，他们是思索、推理，然后就可以得出他们认为的正确答案。他们是怎么推理的呢？一个简单又有趣的例子是这样的：我们上一讲提到过一个米利都学派的哲学家，阿纳克西曼，他说人一定是从其他动物进化来的！最原始的进化论，了不起，对不对？那他是怎么得出这个结论的呢？他发现小孩子需要长期的照顾和看护，否则就无法活下来，从而得出这样一个结论：如果最初的人也像今天这个样子就不可能活到今天。因此，他认为以前的人一定和现在的人不同，也就是说，人一定是从一个很快能自我供给（也就是很快能自己照顾自己自己养活自己）的动物进化而来的，他认为我们是从鱼进化来的。很难说这个结论是错的，因为追溯上去，我们确实是从盾皮鱼进化而来的…
亚里士多德，百科全书式的哲学家，我们上一次讲座提到过他。他的哲学（当然，也包括他的自然哲学）影响了西方各个学科的发展，一直到中世纪时期他一直是各种学科的权威。他的自然哲学研究范围很广，覆盖了我们现在的物理学，动物学、天文学、地理学等等各个方面。你知道吗？物理学这个词本身就是他的发明。他的著作《物理学》中他讨论了物体的运动（被伽利略用两个铁球驳斥了），世界的物质构成，事物存在的本质，光的构成（被牛顿用一个三棱镜驳斥了）以及很多物理问题。许多我们现在使用的基本的物理定义，包括密度、温度、速度等等都是他提炼出来的。亚里士多德还是第一个系统研究动物学的人（他也研究植物，但是相关书籍以及全部遗失了）。他的研究方法是典型的古希腊式方法，他从渔夫和航海的水手那里收集资料和数据，再加上自己的观察，发现同类的动物的共同之处，然后找出他们为何如此的解释。他也观察到有些动物存在变异现象，不过他并没有像达尔文那样推论出进化论，他认为世界存在的一切都是完美的。我手上有《形而上学》和《物理学》，不过小朋友不会对此有兴趣，所以，我推荐大家可以去看看亚里士多德的维基百科，简练但是完整的总结了他的各种成就。
数学家欧几里得 Euclid（和苏格拉底的弟子，墨伽拉的欧几里得并不是一个人）是柏拉图的弟子，他总结了前人的成果，写出了第一本成功的几何学教科书《几何原本》，直到现在依然在使用。我们现在做数学题都会使用很多定理、公理，比如你算代数时候会用到交换律、结合律、分配律之类的规律，算几何我们知道三角形三个角相加是180度，知道毕达哥拉斯定义，这在现在是很普遍的事情，但是谁奠定了使用公理、定理这种了不起办法呢？正是欧几里得。《几何原本》最了不起的就是给出了公理体系、演绎法这种令人惊叹的方法论，使严密的科学成为可能。随便举两个公理（Axioms）的例子吧，欧几里得的直线公理（之一）：通过不同的两点，能作且只能作一直线。比如等量代换公理（之一）：跟同一个量相等的两个量相等；即若 a=c 且 b=c，则 a = b。欧几里得的公理定义都很好理解，我这里只是抛砖引玉，大家可以回去自己再去了解一下。欧几里得有个故事很有意思，我很想和大家分享。一位学生曾这样问欧几里得：“老师，学习几何会使我得到什么好处？”欧几里得思索了一下，请仆人拿点钱给这位学生。欧几里得说：“给他三个钱币，因为他想在学习中获取实利。”很多人会很迷惑，我们为什么要学习，尤其是我们为什么要学习数学，我的回答是，学习本身就是目的，古希腊哲学philosophy这个词的本意就是“爱智慧”，学习知识就是追求人生的完善，这已经是学习给我们带来的最大益处了。
第一位将数学和物理学结合在一起的科学家是阿基米德 Archimedes，他曾师从欧几里得，他在科学上的贡献很大，和牛顿、高斯并称为世界三大数学家。他计算球的面积和体积，椭圆的面积，还计算出了π在3.14163到3.14286之间，他的几何著作是希腊数学的顶峰，在物理上，我们在中学学到的杠杆原理（给我一个支点，我就能撬动地球）和浮力定律都源于他。他更了不起的地方在于，他使用科学结论指导工程，在晚年阿基米德所在的城邦叙拉古和罗马发生了战争（布匿战争的一部分），阿基米德为了保卫城邦，绞尽脑汁，日以继夜的发明了许多御敌武器。投石器能把大石块抛向罗马的军舰，阿基米德之爪能把军舰吊起来，他还利用镜子聚光点燃敌舰。当时和叙拉古作战的马塞拉斯将军都称“阿基米德是神话中的百手巨人”，“这是一场罗马舰队与阿基米德一人的战争”。晚年阿基米德开始怀疑地球中心学说，并猜想地球有可能绕太阳转动，这个猜想一直到哥白尼时代才被人们再次提出来讨论。古希腊人其实很早就提出了日心说，公元前300多年前的阿里斯塔克斯、赫拉克利特都是日心说的拥趸，可惜后来亚里士多德和托勒密的地心说占据了主流地位。我们现在了解了几何了解了物理，接下来我们来看一下基于这二者的建筑和艺术。古希腊建筑在它们所处的时代是全世界最佳的。希腊人把他们的几何美感再现在他们的建筑上。简洁、和谐、强调比例和透视。他们的这种思路对罗马建筑影响很大，也奠定了古典建筑规则的基础。在文艺复兴时期这些原则重新被捡拾起来，直到现在还有巨大影响。
古希腊最宏伟的建筑大多是神庙以及政治家们支持的公共建筑。比如雅典卫城就是由伯利克利将军支持建立起来的，当时最有名的纪念碑雕刻家裴迪亚斯是这项庞大工程的艺术总监，参与其中的还有著名建筑师伊克提诺斯（Ictinus）、卡里克拉泰斯（Callicrates），卫城中最著名的作品是帕台农神庙，裴迪亚斯用黄金和象牙雕刻了高达11.5米的巨大的雅典娜神像，之后裴迪亚斯又去到了奥林匹亚，在那里，他雕刻了别称为世界七大奇迹之一的宙斯神像。裴迪亚斯在古典时代非常有名，他制作的这些雕像有很多文字的记载，但是他的所有作品现在都已经遗失了，只有一些复制品能让我们略窥其盛大光辉。我想这些大家都多少了解一些，我今天想和大家介绍的是不那么著名，但是其影响力一直延续到现在的希腊剧场及其设计理念。古希腊剧场设计是非常科学的，下面我们以药神剧场为例稍微解释一下。药神剧场有多么神奇，一两句话说不清楚，请大家先看一个视频。
非常遗憾腾讯视频找不到更详细的介绍，如果你可以观看YouTube，请搜索关键字“药神剧场 关键时刻”，有非常详细的介绍
一个奇迹，但是创造这个奇迹的不是神，而是聪明的希腊人。
让我简单给大家介绍一下，药神剧场建在一个山坡上，座位直接沿着山坡开凿，这个位置可不是随便选的，按希腊剧场的选取原则来说，他们选择的剧场所在地要能让声音徐徐传播，不受阻碍，不会产生回声让人听不清楚。希腊人管这种地方叫谐和的地方，声音要能从下部逐渐增强，向上升起逐渐放大，使剧场里的每个人都听的清清楚楚。希腊人还在剧场使用一种名叫“共鸣缸”的扩音器，所谓的共鸣缸是一种青铜缸，会倒过来放置在剧场作为之间专门设置的小共鸣室里，要根据音乐的基本原理来放置，不能碰到墙，四周和上方都要留有空间。通过这种装置，从舞台发出的声音向外盘旋着，碰撞这一个个中空青铜缸，增加了声音的清晰性，并且加强了音调的和谐效果。非常了不起的设计，古人们的智慧真是让人惊叹。
我们可以看到，古希腊剧场是，山羊唱歌队和乐队在前方表演，后方的高台上是戏剧演员们表演的地方。
这种方式直到现在依然在使用，这是芭蕾舞剧《胡桃夹子》的演出现场，大家可以看到，乐队是在舞台前方的下沉位置进行演奏的，舞蹈演员则是在舞台上进行演出，和古希腊的情形是一模一样的。古希腊的舞台表演和现在已经很相似了，他们的舞台有很多漂亮的布景，会根据不同的场景变换背景板，还会配置很多舞台装置，有轮车有霹雳机，还有可以把演员吊起来表演的装置，在演水戏的场景还有真的引入水的水沟。这和中国的戏剧舞台讲究“意会”是完全不一样的，中国戏剧的舞台“一根木浆，可以表现惊涛骇浪；几根鞭子，可以表现千军万马”，舞台不展示演员之外的自然环境，而古希腊的戏剧舞台则完全是再现型的戏剧。
我看演唱会和综艺节目时候也很喜欢看舞台设计，比如迈克杰克逊慕尼黑演唱会的设计就很绝，从地下冒出的火箭，非常有冲击力，太棒了。这种设计在古希腊时期其实就有使用。
现在的华人歌手里华晨宇的演唱会经常会有令人印象深刻的舞台设计。这个升降台设计非常漂亮，也是古希腊时期就开始使用的设计之一。
《舞蹈风暴》的舞台设计非常有突破综艺节目里湖南台是在舞台设计上最有创新的，《我是歌手》的舞台设计被很多其他类似的综艺节目借鉴。现在有个很火的综艺节目，《舞蹈风暴》用的是略微下沉的全景舞台设计，也非常有创意的。节目本身很精彩，强烈推荐大家观看。
希波克拉底，古希腊的“老中医”最后我们简单介绍一下古希腊的医学成就。医学早期往往和巫术混杂在一起，在希腊也是如此。希波克拉底是古希腊第一位明确把医学和巫术区分开来的医生，他称那些巫医都是骗子，他认为人生病的原因主要是环境因素、饮食及起居习惯。他强调个人卫生，强调治疗疾病时候医护人员要注意消毒，他相信人本身具有自愈的能力，“休息和运动是治病之头等要事”。这在当时都是非常先进的理念。当然，我们现在也知道他的解剖学和生理学观点有很多错误。比如体液理论 Humorae theory就早已被证明是错误的。他认为人体是由四种体液构成－血液、黏液、黄胆汁和黑胆汁，这四种体液对应到四种元素、四种气质，四种体液在人体内失去平衡就会造成疾病。在法国小说家司汤达的名著《红与黑》中评价德-费瓦克元帅夫人“我不认为她是胆汁质的气质，此种气质是天才的气质，是涂在一切行动上的一层激情。”《红与黑》1830年出版，希波克拉底生活在公元前460年—370年。想想看，延续了两千多年的一个错误学说。古代西方医生在开业时都要宣读一份有关医务道德的誓词（Hippocratic Oath）据传说就是希波克拉底制定的。敬禀阿波罗、医神阿斯克勒庇俄斯、许癸厄亚、帕那刻亚，及天地诸神圣鉴之，鄙人敬谨宣誓：余愿尽己之能力与判断力之所及，矢守此约。凡授余艺者：余敬如父母，为终身同甘共苦之侣；倘有急需，余必接济。视彼儿女，犹余手足，如欲受业，余无偿、无条件传授之。凡余之所知，无论口授、书传俱传之吾子、吾师之子、及立誓守此约之生徒，此外不传他人。余愿尽己之能力与判断力之所及，恪守为病家谋福之信条，并避免一切堕落害人之败行，余必不以毒物药品与他人，并不做此项之指导，虽人请求，亦必不与之，尤不为妇人施堕胎之术。余愿以此纯洁神圣之心，终身执行余之职务。至于手术，另待高明，余不施之，遇结石患者亦然，惟使专匠为之。无论何适何遇，逢男或女，民人奴隶，余之唯一目的，为病家谋福，并检点吾身，不为种种堕落害人之败行，尤不为诱奸之事。凡余所见所闻，不论有无业务之牵连，余以为不应泄漏者，愿守口如瓶。倘余严守上述之誓词，愿神仅使余之生命及医术，得无上光荣；苟违此誓，天地鬼神共殛之！这一期啰啰嗦嗦讲了很多，大部分是我自己的趣味，孩子们如果感兴趣可以自己去找书来看，热爱来自生活，看看你周围有没有你喜欢你感兴趣的东西，研究它，让自己成为自己所热爱的东西的专家，记得我们之前说的话吗？我们为什么要学习，爱智慧爱学习本身就是学习最大的乐趣，希望每个小朋友都能找到自己热爱的东西。
以下是Beikun的翻译，剧场部分实在太难了，他快翻译哭了这部分超出了他的能力范畴，因此没有翻译，讲座时候这部分也是只有中文的，请朋友们体谅。When science as we know it began.400 year ago,2000 years after the Greeks, it began by upsetting the central teaching of Greek science which remained the authority. But it upset the Greek by following this Greek hunch that the answers would be simple and logical and mathematical.Geometry is the quickest way to demonstrate how clever the Greek. Many will have forgotten it, so let’s start with the basics.The starting point is a Point, which the Greeks define as having location but no magnitude. Of course, it does possess magnitude, there is the width of the dot on a page, but geometry is a sort of make-believe world, a pure world. Second: a line has length but no breadth. Next, a straight line is defined as the shortest line joining two points.From these three definition, you can create a definition of a circle: in the first place, it is a line making a closed figure. But how to formulate roundness? If you think about it, roundness is very hard to define. You define it by saying there is a point within this figure, one point, from which straight lines drawn to the figure will always be of equal length.Along with circles, there are parallel lines that extend forever without meeting, and triangle in all their variety, and squares and rectangles and other regular forms.Geometry is a simple, elegant, logical system, very satisfying and beautiful.Let No One Ignorant of geometry Enter was engraved at the door of Plato’s Academy. The meaning of that sentence is that, of you can’t feel the beauty in geometry, you don’t need to study philosophy.In ancient Greek, science and philosophy may not be distinguished. Science was also known as scientific philosophy. Thales (remember him? Thales of Miletus) predicted solar eclipse, and he was successful in land surveying. Pythagoras first hand the claim that the solar system had 10 members (including the Sun), Zeno’s paradoxes have logic and mathematic ideas.The Greeks did not do science as we do, with hypotheses and testing by experiments. They thought if you got your mind into gear and thought hard you would get the right answer. They proceeded by a system of inspired guesses.but how do they reason it? One example is like this: Anaximander, a Milesian school philosopher we talked about last time, claimed that humans evolved from some sort of an animal. This was the first theory of evolution, fabulous!But how did he know that? He found out that young humans needed to be taken care so long time. We wouldn’t be here today if the first human were like this. So he supposed that humans were evolved from some kind of animals have sufficient available for self-support. So, he thought that we were evolved from fish. He live in a coastal, in view of this, I can understand his supposition.Aristotle, the master of all science, his philosophy (of course including natural philosophy) influence on almost every form of knowledge in the west. His natural philosophy span a wide range of natural including those now covered by physics, biology, astronomy, geography and other natural science.You know, Aristotle produced the word “physics”. He discussed motion, elements, causes and some other physical problems in his great book, Physics.A lot of basic physical conceptions, like density, temperature, velocity and so on, are distilled by Aristotle.Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically. He gathered data, discovered patterns common to whole group of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed.The mathematician Euclid (different from the Euclid of Megara) is Plato’s student, he summed up predecessor’s achievements, and wrote the first successful math textbook Euclid’s Elements. We still using this book in school.When we do math problems, we will use many theorems and axioms. For example, in arithmetic, you may use the communitive property, the associative property and the distributive property. And other things that have the same type. In geometry, we know the Pythagorean theorem. Knowing how to do is normal now, but who made the properties? It is Euclid.Euclid’s Elements’ most fabulous contribution is the Axiomatic system and the Deduction, which made science possible.For example, Euclid’s linear axiom: to draw a straight line from any point to any point. Equivalent substitution: Things which are equal to the same things are also equal to one another.Archimedes was one of the first to apply math to physical phenomenon. He had studied under Euclid. Archimedes is very important contributor to the science.Archimedes, Isaac Newton, Carl Friedrich Gauss are Known as the greatest mathematician of all time. He calculated the area of a circle, the area of oval, the surface area and volume of a sphere. derived an accurate approximation of Pi, which is between 3.14163 and 3.14286. His geometry book is the peak of ancient Greece.In physics, we learned the lever principle (give me a lever long enough and a fulcrum and I shall move the Earth). The story about Archimedes’ principal is the most widely known by us. According to Vitruvius, a votive crown for a temple had been made for King of Syracuse, who had supplied the pure gold to be used, and Archimedes was asked to determine whether some silver had been substituted by the dishonest goldsmith. While taking a bath, he noticed that the level of the water in the tub rose as he got in, realized that this effect could be used to determine the volume of the crown. Archimedes then took to the streets naked, so excited by his discovery that he had forgotten to dress, crying “Eureka!” meaning “I have found!”).The greater is, he could use science in engineering, when he was old, his polies, Syracuse, had a war with Rome (part of Punic War), Archimedes made several war machines to defend his polies. The catapult, the claw of Archimedes, which can lift ships. He used mirrors acting collectively as a reflector to burn ships attacking Syracuse. Marcellus (the sword of Rome) said:” Must we give up fighting with this geometrical Briareus.”Now we know some basic things about math and physics, let discuss the architecture base on them.Greek architects provided some of the finest and most distinctive buildings in the entire Ancient World. the Greek concern with simplicity, proportion, perspective, and harmony in their buildings would go on to greatly influence architects in the Roman world and provide the foundation for the classical architectural orders which would dominate the western world from the Renaissance to the present day.The most magnificent buildings in Greek are temple and some public buildings supported by politicians.Pericles coordinated the construction of Acropolis’ most important present remains including the Parthenon, the Parthenon, the Erechtheion and the Temple of Athena Nike.Phidias is the artistic director, principal members of his team include architect Ictinus and Callicrates. Phidias is often credited as the main instigator of the classical Greek sculptural design.Phidias designed the statues of goddess Athena inside the Parthenon. The statue is created with ivory and gold, around 11.5metres (37ft 9in) tall and stood on a pedestal measuring 4 by 8metres.Phidias also design the statue of Zeus at Olympia, that was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Like other regions, medicine and witchcraft were mixed in ancient Greek. Hippocrates separated the discipline of medicine from religion. He believed that disease was not a punishment inflicted by the gods, but rather the product of environment factors, diet, and living habits.Hippocrates believed “the healing power of nature”, which means the body contains within itself the power to rebalance the four humors and heal itself. He believed “rest and immobilization of capital importance”.Hippocratic treatment emphasized keeping the patient clean and sterile. This is very advanced in that era.Hippocrates did work with many convictions that were based on what is now known to be incorrect anatomy and physiology, such as Humorism.Humorism was a system of medicine detailing the makeup and workings of the human body.The Human body contains blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. These are the things that make up its constitution and cause its pains and health. Health is primarily that state in which these constituent substances are in the correct proportion to each other, both in strength and quantity, and are well mixed. Pain occurs when one of the substances presents either a deficiency or an excess, or is separated in the body and not mixed with others.In Stendhcl’s novel The Red and The Black, mentioned a lady named Mme.de.Fervaques, ” In her, I do not find the choleric temperament, which is that of genius and casts as it were a gloss of passion over all its actions.”This book is published in 1830, Hippocrates lived in around 460 BC-370BC. Wow! a big mistake last over 2000 years.Hippocrates is commonly credited with coining the Hippocratic Oath, which is still relevant and in use today.Hippocrates：The Oath of MedicineI swear by Apollo, the healer, Asclepius, Hygieia, and Panacea, and I take to witness all the gods, all the goddesses, to keep according to my ability and my judgment, the following Oath and agreement:
To consider dear to me, as my parents, him who taught me this art; to live in common with him and, if necessary, to share my goods with him; To look upon his children as my own brothers, to teach them this art.I will prescribe regimens for the good of my patients according to my ability and my judgment and never do harm to anyone.I will not give a lethal drug to anyone if I am asked, nor will I advise such a plan; and similarly I will not give a woman a pessary to cause an abortion.But I will preserve the purity of my life and my arts.I will not cut for stone, even for patients in whom the disease is manifest; I will leave this operation to be performed by practitioners, specialists in this art.In every house where I come I will enter only for the good of my patients, keeping myself far from all intentional ill-doing and all seduction and especially from the pleasures of love with women or with men, be they free or slaves.All that may come to my knowledge in the exercise of my profession or in daily commerce with men, which ought not to be spread abroad, I will keep secret and will never reveal.If I keep this oath faithfully, may I enjoy my life and practice my art, respected by all men and in all times; but if I swerve from it or violate it, may the reverse be my lot.